Introduction to Social Sciences

 

(Meaning, Scope, Methods, and Philosophical Foundations)

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1. Meaning and Scope of Social Science

What is Social Science?

Social Science is the systematic study of human society, social relationships, institutions, structures, and behavior. It seeks to understand how people live together, organize power, produce wealth, construct meaning, and respond to change.

A classical starting point is Auguste Comte (1798–1857), who coined the term sociology and argued that society should be studied scientifically. He believed social science could discover laws of social behavior just like physics discovers laws of motion.

Émile Durkheim defined sociology as the study of “social facts” — patterns, norms, and institutions that exist outside individuals but influence their behavior.

More broadly, Social Science includes:

• Sociology (society and social relations)

• Political Science (state and power)

• Economics (production and distribution)

• Anthropology (culture and human diversity)

• History (change over time)

• Psychology (human behavior)

• Geography (space and environment)

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Scope of Social Science

The scope of social science is vast. It includes:

1. Understanding social institutions
   Family, education, religion, state, market.

2. Analyzing power and governance
   Authority, democracy, legitimacy, sovereignty.

3. Studying economic systems
   Capitalism, socialism, development, inequality.

4. Examining culture and identity
   Language, ethnicity, gender, nationalism.

5. Explaining social change
   Revolutions, globalization, modernization.

In short, social science answers questions like:

• Why are some societies unequal?

• How does power operate?

• Why do revolutions occur?

• What shapes identity?

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2. Difference Between Natural and Social Sciences

Natural Sciences

Examples: Physics, Chemistry, Biology

• Study the physical world

• Seek universal laws

• Experiments are repeatable

• High level of predictability

Social Sciences

• Study human behavior and social systems

• Behavior is influenced by culture, values, history

• Less predictable

• Context-dependent

Wilhelm Dilthey argued that natural sciences explain (Erklären), while social sciences understand (Verstehen).

Key Differences:

Natural Sciences	Social Sciences
Study nature	Study society
Controlled experiments	Social observation & interpretation
Predictable outcomes	Context-based outcomes
Objective measurement	Interpretive understanding

However, modern social sciences also use statistics, surveys, and data modeling similar to natural sciences.

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3. Positivism vs Interpretivism

This is one of the most important debates in social science.

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Positivism

Founder: Auguste Comte

Positivism argues that society can be studied using the same scientific methods as natural sciences.

Core assumptions:

• Reality is objective and measurable.

• Social laws exist.

• Knowledge comes from observation and data.

Durkheim used positivism to study suicide statistically, arguing that suicide rates follow social patterns.

Strengths:

• Produces measurable data.

• Useful for policy-making.

• Allows comparison across societies.

Criticism:

• Ignores human emotions and meanings.

• Reduces humans to numbers.

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Interpretivism

Key Thinker: Max Weber

Interpretivism argues that social reality is constructed through meaning and interpretation.

Weber introduced the concept of Verstehen (interpretive understanding). He believed we must understand the meanings individuals attach to their actions.

Core assumptions:

• Social reality is subjective.

• Human behavior cannot be studied like natural objects.

• Context matters.

Example:
A protest can be:

• A crime (state view)

• A resistance movement (protestor view)

Interpretivism helps us understand these perspectives.

Strengths:

• Captures human experience.

• Deep understanding of culture.

Criticism:

• Difficult to generalize.

• Can lack objectivity.

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4. Objectivity vs Subjectivity

Objectivity

Objectivity means research free from personal bias.

Durkheim insisted social scientists must treat social facts “as things,” meaning objectively.

Objectivity requires:

• Neutrality

• Evidence-based conclusions

• Replicability

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Subjectivity

Subjectivity recognizes that:

• Researchers are part of society.

• Values influence interpretation.

Max Weber argued for “value neutrality” but admitted complete neutrality is impossible.

Modern scholars believe:

• Total objectivity is difficult.

• Awareness of bias is essential.

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5. Quantitative vs Qualitative Methods

These are research approaches used in social science.

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Quantitative Methods

• Numerical data

• Surveys

• Statistics

• Experiments

Example:
Measuring unemployment rate through national data.

Advantages:

• Large samples

• Generalizable findings

• Policy relevance

Limitations:

• May ignore depth of experience.

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Qualitative Methods

• Interviews

• Observations

• Case studies

• Ethnography

Example:
Interviewing unemployed individuals to understand emotional impact.

Advantages:

• Rich detail

• Contextual understanding

Limitations:

• Smaller samples

• Hard to generalize

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Mixed Methods

Modern research often combines both:

• Statistics + Interviews

• Data + Fieldwork

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Conclusion: Why This Debate Matters

Understanding these foundations helps students realize:

• Social science is not just opinion.

• It has philosophical roots.

• It involves methodological debates.

• It shapes policies and societies.

As C. Wright Mills argued in The Sociological Imagination, social science helps us connect personal troubles to public issues.

Social science equips students to:

• Think critically

• Question assumptions

• Understand power

• Analyze society scientifically and ethically